| .. SPDX-License-Identifier: GPL-2.0 |
| |
| ======================== |
| ext4 General Information |
| ======================== |
| |
| Ext4 is an advanced level of the ext3 filesystem which incorporates |
| scalability and reliability enhancements for supporting large filesystems |
| (64 bit) in keeping with increasing disk capacities and state-of-the-art |
| feature requirements. |
| |
| Mailing list: linux-ext4@vger.kernel.org |
| Web site: http://ext4.wiki.kernel.org |
| |
| |
| Quick usage instructions |
| ======================== |
| |
| Note: More extensive information for getting started with ext4 can be |
| found at the ext4 wiki site at the URL: |
| http://ext4.wiki.kernel.org/index.php/Ext4_Howto |
| |
| - The latest version of e2fsprogs can be found at: |
| |
| https://www.kernel.org/pub/linux/kernel/people/tytso/e2fsprogs/ |
| |
| or |
| |
| http://sourceforge.net/project/showfiles.php?group_id=2406 |
| |
| or grab the latest git repository from: |
| |
| https://git.kernel.org/pub/scm/fs/ext2/e2fsprogs.git |
| |
| - Create a new filesystem using the ext4 filesystem type: |
| |
| # mke2fs -t ext4 /dev/hda1 |
| |
| Or to configure an existing ext3 filesystem to support extents: |
| |
| # tune2fs -O extents /dev/hda1 |
| |
| If the filesystem was created with 128 byte inodes, it can be |
| converted to use 256 byte for greater efficiency via: |
| |
| # tune2fs -I 256 /dev/hda1 |
| |
| - Mounting: |
| |
| # mount -t ext4 /dev/hda1 /wherever |
| |
| - When comparing performance with other filesystems, it's always |
| important to try multiple workloads; very often a subtle change in a |
| workload parameter can completely change the ranking of which |
| filesystems do well compared to others. When comparing versus ext3, |
| note that ext4 enables write barriers by default, while ext3 does |
| not enable write barriers by default. So it is useful to use |
| explicitly specify whether barriers are enabled or not when via the |
| '-o barriers=[0|1]' mount option for both ext3 and ext4 filesystems |
| for a fair comparison. When tuning ext3 for best benchmark numbers, |
| it is often worthwhile to try changing the data journaling mode; '-o |
| data=writeback' can be faster for some workloads. (Note however that |
| running mounted with data=writeback can potentially leave stale data |
| exposed in recently written files in case of an unclean shutdown, |
| which could be a security exposure in some situations.) Configuring |
| the filesystem with a large journal can also be helpful for |
| metadata-intensive workloads. |
| |
| Features |
| ======== |
| |
| Currently Available |
| ------------------- |
| |
| * ability to use filesystems > 16TB (e2fsprogs support not available yet) |
| * extent format reduces metadata overhead (RAM, IO for access, transactions) |
| * extent format more robust in face of on-disk corruption due to magics, |
| * internal redundancy in tree |
| * improved file allocation (multi-block alloc) |
| * lift 32000 subdirectory limit imposed by i_links_count[1] |
| * nsec timestamps for mtime, atime, ctime, create time |
| * inode version field on disk (NFSv4, Lustre) |
| * reduced e2fsck time via uninit_bg feature |
| * journal checksumming for robustness, performance |
| * persistent file preallocation (e.g for streaming media, databases) |
| * ability to pack bitmaps and inode tables into larger virtual groups via the |
| flex_bg feature |
| * large file support |
| * inode allocation using large virtual block groups via flex_bg |
| * delayed allocation |
| * large block (up to pagesize) support |
| * efficient new ordered mode in JBD2 and ext4 (avoid using buffer head to force |
| the ordering) |
| * Case-insensitive file name lookups |
| * file-based encryption support (fscrypt) |
| * file-based verity support (fsverity) |
| |
| [1] Filesystems with a block size of 1k may see a limit imposed by the |
| directory hash tree having a maximum depth of two. |
| |
| case-insensitive file name lookups |
| ====================================================== |
| |
| The case-insensitive file name lookup feature is supported on a |
| per-directory basis, allowing the user to mix case-insensitive and |
| case-sensitive directories in the same filesystem. It is enabled by |
| flipping the +F inode attribute of an empty directory. The |
| case-insensitive string match operation is only defined when we know how |
| text in encoded in a byte sequence. For that reason, in order to enable |
| case-insensitive directories, the filesystem must have the |
| casefold feature, which stores the filesystem-wide encoding |
| model used. By default, the charset adopted is the latest version of |
| Unicode (12.1.0, by the time of this writing), encoded in the UTF-8 |
| form. The comparison algorithm is implemented by normalizing the |
| strings to the Canonical decomposition form, as defined by Unicode, |
| followed by a byte per byte comparison. |
| |
| The case-awareness is name-preserving on the disk, meaning that the file |
| name provided by userspace is a byte-per-byte match to what is actually |
| written in the disk. The Unicode normalization format used by the |
| kernel is thus an internal representation, and not exposed to the |
| userspace nor to the disk, with the important exception of disk hashes, |
| used on large case-insensitive directories with DX feature. On DX |
| directories, the hash must be calculated using the casefolded version of |
| the filename, meaning that the normalization format used actually has an |
| impact on where the directory entry is stored. |
| |
| When we change from viewing filenames as opaque byte sequences to seeing |
| them as encoded strings we need to address what happens when a program |
| tries to create a file with an invalid name. The Unicode subsystem |
| within the kernel leaves the decision of what to do in this case to the |
| filesystem, which select its preferred behavior by enabling/disabling |
| the strict mode. When Ext4 encounters one of those strings and the |
| filesystem did not require strict mode, it falls back to considering the |
| entire string as an opaque byte sequence, which still allows the user to |
| operate on that file, but the case-insensitive lookups won't work. |
| |
| Options |
| ======= |
| |
| When mounting an ext4 filesystem, the following option are accepted: |
| (*) == default |
| |
| ro |
| Mount filesystem read only. Note that ext4 will replay the journal (and |
| thus write to the partition) even when mounted "read only". The mount |
| options "ro,noload" can be used to prevent writes to the filesystem. |
| |
| journal_checksum |
| Enable checksumming of the journal transactions. This will allow the |
| recovery code in e2fsck and the kernel to detect corruption in the |
| kernel. It is a compatible change and will be ignored by older |
| kernels. |
| |
| journal_async_commit |
| Commit block can be written to disk without waiting for descriptor |
| blocks. If enabled older kernels cannot mount the device. This will |
| enable 'journal_checksum' internally. |
| |
| journal_path=path, journal_dev=devnum |
| When the external journal device's major/minor numbers have changed, |
| these options allow the user to specify the new journal location. The |
| journal device is identified through either its new major/minor numbers |
| encoded in devnum, or via a path to the device. |
| |
| norecovery, noload |
| Don't load the journal on mounting. Note that if the filesystem was |
| not unmounted cleanly, skipping the journal replay will lead to the |
| filesystem containing inconsistencies that can lead to any number of |
| problems. |
| |
| data=journal |
| All data are committed into the journal prior to being written into the |
| main file system. Enabling this mode will disable delayed allocation |
| and O_DIRECT support. |
| |
| data=ordered (*) |
| All data are forced directly out to the main file system prior to its |
| metadata being committed to the journal. |
| |
| data=writeback |
| Data ordering is not preserved, data may be written into the main file |
| system after its metadata has been committed to the journal. |
| |
| commit=nrsec (*) |
| This setting limits the maximum age of the running transaction to |
| 'nrsec' seconds. The default value is 5 seconds. This means that if |
| you lose your power, you will lose as much as the latest 5 seconds of |
| metadata changes (your filesystem will not be damaged though, thanks |
| to the journaling). This default value (or any low value) will hurt |
| performance, but it's good for data-safety. Setting it to 0 will have |
| the same effect as leaving it at the default (5 seconds). Setting it |
| to very large values will improve performance. Note that due to |
| delayed allocation even older data can be lost on power failure since |
| writeback of those data begins only after time set in |
| /proc/sys/vm/dirty_expire_centisecs. |
| |
| barrier=<0|1(*)>, barrier(*), nobarrier |
| This enables/disables the use of write barriers in the jbd code. |
| barrier=0 disables, barrier=1 enables. This also requires an IO stack |
| which can support barriers, and if jbd gets an error on a barrier |
| write, it will disable again with a warning. Write barriers enforce |
| proper on-disk ordering of journal commits, making volatile disk write |
| caches safe to use, at some performance penalty. If your disks are |
| battery-backed in one way or another, disabling barriers may safely |
| improve performance. The mount options "barrier" and "nobarrier" can |
| also be used to enable or disable barriers, for consistency with other |
| ext4 mount options. |
| |
| inode_readahead_blks=n |
| This tuning parameter controls the maximum number of inode table blocks |
| that ext4's inode table readahead algorithm will pre-read into the |
| buffer cache. The default value is 32 blocks. |
| |
| nouser_xattr |
| Disables Extended User Attributes. See the attr(5) manual page for |
| more information about extended attributes. |
| |
| noacl |
| This option disables POSIX Access Control List support. If ACL support |
| is enabled in the kernel configuration (CONFIG_EXT4_FS_POSIX_ACL), ACL |
| is enabled by default on mount. See the acl(5) manual page for more |
| information about acl. |
| |
| bsddf (*) |
| Make 'df' act like BSD. |
| |
| minixdf |
| Make 'df' act like Minix. |
| |
| debug |
| Extra debugging information is sent to syslog. |
| |
| abort |
| Simulate the effects of calling ext4_abort() for debugging purposes. |
| This is normally used while remounting a filesystem which is already |
| mounted. |
| |
| errors=remount-ro |
| Remount the filesystem read-only on an error. |
| |
| errors=continue |
| Keep going on a filesystem error. |
| |
| errors=panic |
| Panic and halt the machine if an error occurs. (These mount options |
| override the errors behavior specified in the superblock, which can be |
| configured using tune2fs) |
| |
| data_err=ignore(*) |
| Just print an error message if an error occurs in a file data buffer in |
| ordered mode. |
| data_err=abort |
| Abort the journal if an error occurs in a file data buffer in ordered |
| mode. |
| |
| grpid | bsdgroups |
| New objects have the group ID of their parent. |
| |
| nogrpid (*) | sysvgroups |
| New objects have the group ID of their creator. |
| |
| resgid=n |
| The group ID which may use the reserved blocks. |
| |
| resuid=n |
| The user ID which may use the reserved blocks. |
| |
| sb= |
| Use alternate superblock at this location. |
| |
| quota, noquota, grpquota, usrquota |
| These options are ignored by the filesystem. They are used only by |
| quota tools to recognize volumes where quota should be turned on. See |
| documentation in the quota-tools package for more details |
| (http://sourceforge.net/projects/linuxquota). |
| |
| jqfmt=<quota type>, usrjquota=<file>, grpjquota=<file> |
| These options tell filesystem details about quota so that quota |
| information can be properly updated during journal replay. They replace |
| the above quota options. See documentation in the quota-tools package |
| for more details (http://sourceforge.net/projects/linuxquota). |
| |
| stripe=n |
| Number of filesystem blocks that mballoc will try to use for allocation |
| size and alignment. For RAID5/6 systems this should be the number of |
| data disks * RAID chunk size in file system blocks. |
| |
| delalloc (*) |
| Defer block allocation until just before ext4 writes out the block(s) |
| in question. This allows ext4 to better allocation decisions more |
| efficiently. |
| |
| nodelalloc |
| Disable delayed allocation. Blocks are allocated when the data is |
| copied from userspace to the page cache, either via the write(2) system |
| call or when an mmap'ed page which was previously unallocated is |
| written for the first time. |
| |
| max_batch_time=usec |
| Maximum amount of time ext4 should wait for additional filesystem |
| operations to be batch together with a synchronous write operation. |
| Since a synchronous write operation is going to force a commit and then |
| a wait for the I/O complete, it doesn't cost much, and can be a huge |
| throughput win, we wait for a small amount of time to see if any other |
| transactions can piggyback on the synchronous write. The algorithm |
| used is designed to automatically tune for the speed of the disk, by |
| measuring the amount of time (on average) that it takes to finish |
| committing a transaction. Call this time the "commit time". If the |
| time that the transaction has been running is less than the commit |
| time, ext4 will try sleeping for the commit time to see if other |
| operations will join the transaction. The commit time is capped by |
| the max_batch_time, which defaults to 15000us (15ms). This |
| optimization can be turned off entirely by setting max_batch_time to 0. |
| |
| min_batch_time=usec |
| This parameter sets the commit time (as described above) to be at least |
| min_batch_time. It defaults to zero microseconds. Increasing this |
| parameter may improve the throughput of multi-threaded, synchronous |
| workloads on very fast disks, at the cost of increasing latency. |
| |
| journal_ioprio=prio |
| The I/O priority (from 0 to 7, where 0 is the highest priority) which |
| should be used for I/O operations submitted by kjournald2 during a |
| commit operation. This defaults to 3, which is a slightly higher |
| priority than the default I/O priority. |
| |
| auto_da_alloc(*), noauto_da_alloc |
| Many broken applications don't use fsync() when replacing existing |
| files via patterns such as fd = open("foo.new")/write(fd,..)/close(fd)/ |
| rename("foo.new", "foo"), or worse yet, fd = open("foo", |
| O_TRUNC)/write(fd,..)/close(fd). If auto_da_alloc is enabled, ext4 |
| will detect the replace-via-rename and replace-via-truncate patterns |
| and force that any delayed allocation blocks are allocated such that at |
| the next journal commit, in the default data=ordered mode, the data |
| blocks of the new file are forced to disk before the rename() operation |
| is committed. This provides roughly the same level of guarantees as |
| ext3, and avoids the "zero-length" problem that can happen when a |
| system crashes before the delayed allocation blocks are forced to disk. |
| |
| noinit_itable |
| Do not initialize any uninitialized inode table blocks in the |
| background. This feature may be used by installation CD's so that the |
| install process can complete as quickly as possible; the inode table |
| initialization process would then be deferred until the next time the |
| file system is unmounted. |
| |
| init_itable=n |
| The lazy itable init code will wait n times the number of milliseconds |
| it took to zero out the previous block group's inode table. This |
| minimizes the impact on the system performance while file system's |
| inode table is being initialized. |
| |
| discard, nodiscard(*) |
| Controls whether ext4 should issue discard/TRIM commands to the |
| underlying block device when blocks are freed. This is useful for SSD |
| devices and sparse/thinly-provisioned LUNs, but it is off by default |
| until sufficient testing has been done. |
| |
| nouid32 |
| Disables 32-bit UIDs and GIDs. This is for interoperability with |
| older kernels which only store and expect 16-bit values. |
| |
| block_validity(*), noblock_validity |
| These options enable or disable the in-kernel facility for tracking |
| filesystem metadata blocks within internal data structures. This |
| allows multi- block allocator and other routines to notice bugs or |
| corrupted allocation bitmaps which cause blocks to be allocated which |
| overlap with filesystem metadata blocks. |
| |
| dioread_lock, dioread_nolock |
| Controls whether or not ext4 should use the DIO read locking. If the |
| dioread_nolock option is specified ext4 will allocate uninitialized |
| extent before buffer write and convert the extent to initialized after |
| IO completes. This approach allows ext4 code to avoid using inode |
| mutex, which improves scalability on high speed storages. However this |
| does not work with data journaling and dioread_nolock option will be |
| ignored with kernel warning. Note that dioread_nolock code path is only |
| used for extent-based files. Because of the restrictions this options |
| comprises it is off by default (e.g. dioread_lock). |
| |
| max_dir_size_kb=n |
| This limits the size of directories so that any attempt to expand them |
| beyond the specified limit in kilobytes will cause an ENOSPC error. |
| This is useful in memory constrained environments, where a very large |
| directory can cause severe performance problems or even provoke the Out |
| Of Memory killer. (For example, if there is only 512mb memory |
| available, a 176mb directory may seriously cramp the system's style.) |
| |
| i_version |
| Enable 64-bit inode version support. This option is off by default. |
| |
| dax |
| Use direct access (no page cache). See |
| Documentation/filesystems/dax.txt. Note that this option is |
| incompatible with data=journal. |
| |
| inlinecrypt |
| When possible, encrypt/decrypt the contents of encrypted files using the |
| blk-crypto framework rather than filesystem-layer encryption. This |
| allows the use of inline encryption hardware. The on-disk format is |
| unaffected. For more details, see |
| Documentation/block/inline-encryption.rst. |
| |
| Data Mode |
| ========= |
| There are 3 different data modes: |
| |
| * writeback mode |
| |
| In data=writeback mode, ext4 does not journal data at all. This mode provides |
| a similar level of journaling as that of XFS, JFS, and ReiserFS in its default |
| mode - metadata journaling. A crash+recovery can cause incorrect data to |
| appear in files which were written shortly before the crash. This mode will |
| typically provide the best ext4 performance. |
| |
| * ordered mode |
| |
| In data=ordered mode, ext4 only officially journals metadata, but it logically |
| groups metadata information related to data changes with the data blocks into |
| a single unit called a transaction. When it's time to write the new metadata |
| out to disk, the associated data blocks are written first. In general, this |
| mode performs slightly slower than writeback but significantly faster than |
| journal mode. |
| |
| * journal mode |
| |
| data=journal mode provides full data and metadata journaling. All new data is |
| written to the journal first, and then to its final location. In the event of |
| a crash, the journal can be replayed, bringing both data and metadata into a |
| consistent state. This mode is the slowest except when data needs to be read |
| from and written to disk at the same time where it outperforms all others |
| modes. Enabling this mode will disable delayed allocation and O_DIRECT |
| support. |
| |
| /proc entries |
| ============= |
| |
| Information about mounted ext4 file systems can be found in |
| /proc/fs/ext4. Each mounted filesystem will have a directory in |
| /proc/fs/ext4 based on its device name (i.e., /proc/fs/ext4/hdc or |
| /proc/fs/ext4/dm-0). The files in each per-device directory are shown |
| in table below. |
| |
| Files in /proc/fs/ext4/<devname> |
| |
| mb_groups |
| details of multiblock allocator buddy cache of free blocks |
| |
| /sys entries |
| ============ |
| |
| Information about mounted ext4 file systems can be found in |
| /sys/fs/ext4. Each mounted filesystem will have a directory in |
| /sys/fs/ext4 based on its device name (i.e., /sys/fs/ext4/hdc or |
| /sys/fs/ext4/dm-0). The files in each per-device directory are shown |
| in table below. |
| |
| Files in /sys/fs/ext4/<devname>: |
| |
| (see also Documentation/ABI/testing/sysfs-fs-ext4) |
| |
| delayed_allocation_blocks |
| This file is read-only and shows the number of blocks that are dirty in |
| the page cache, but which do not have their location in the filesystem |
| allocated yet. |
| |
| inode_goal |
| Tuning parameter which (if non-zero) controls the goal inode used by |
| the inode allocator in preference to all other allocation heuristics. |
| This is intended for debugging use only, and should be 0 on production |
| systems. |
| |
| inode_readahead_blks |
| Tuning parameter which controls the maximum number of inode table |
| blocks that ext4's inode table readahead algorithm will pre-read into |
| the buffer cache. |
| |
| lifetime_write_kbytes |
| This file is read-only and shows the number of kilobytes of data that |
| have been written to this filesystem since it was created. |
| |
| max_writeback_mb_bump |
| The maximum number of megabytes the writeback code will try to write |
| out before move on to another inode. |
| |
| mb_group_prealloc |
| The multiblock allocator will round up allocation requests to a |
| multiple of this tuning parameter if the stripe size is not set in the |
| ext4 superblock |
| |
| mb_max_inode_prealloc |
| The maximum length of per-inode ext4_prealloc_space list. |
| |
| mb_max_to_scan |
| The maximum number of extents the multiblock allocator will search to |
| find the best extent. |
| |
| mb_min_to_scan |
| The minimum number of extents the multiblock allocator will search to |
| find the best extent. |
| |
| mb_order2_req |
| Tuning parameter which controls the minimum size for requests (as a |
| power of 2) where the buddy cache is used. |
| |
| mb_stats |
| Controls whether the multiblock allocator should collect statistics, |
| which are shown during the unmount. 1 means to collect statistics, 0 |
| means not to collect statistics. |
| |
| mb_stream_req |
| Files which have fewer blocks than this tunable parameter will have |
| their blocks allocated out of a block group specific preallocation |
| pool, so that small files are packed closely together. Each large file |
| will have its blocks allocated out of its own unique preallocation |
| pool. |
| |
| session_write_kbytes |
| This file is read-only and shows the number of kilobytes of data that |
| have been written to this filesystem since it was mounted. |
| |
| reserved_clusters |
| This is RW file and contains number of reserved clusters in the file |
| system which will be used in the specific situations to avoid costly |
| zeroout, unexpected ENOSPC, or possible data loss. The default is 2% or |
| 4096 clusters, whichever is smaller and this can be changed however it |
| can never exceed number of clusters in the file system. If there is not |
| enough space for the reserved space when mounting the file mount will |
| _not_ fail. |
| |
| Ioctls |
| ====== |
| |
| Ext4 implements various ioctls which can be used by applications to access |
| ext4-specific functionality. An incomplete list of these ioctls is shown in the |
| table below. This list includes truly ext4-specific ioctls (``EXT4_IOC_*``) as |
| well as ioctls that may have been ext4-specific originally but are now supported |
| by some other filesystem(s) too (``FS_IOC_*``). |
| |
| Table of Ext4 ioctls |
| |
| FS_IOC_GETFLAGS |
| Get additional attributes associated with inode. The ioctl argument is |
| an integer bitfield, with bit values described in ext4.h. |
| |
| FS_IOC_SETFLAGS |
| Set additional attributes associated with inode. The ioctl argument is |
| an integer bitfield, with bit values described in ext4.h. |
| |
| EXT4_IOC_GETVERSION, EXT4_IOC_GETVERSION_OLD |
| Get the inode i_generation number stored for each inode. The |
| i_generation number is normally changed only when new inode is created |
| and it is particularly useful for network filesystems. The '_OLD' |
| version of this ioctl is an alias for FS_IOC_GETVERSION. |
| |
| EXT4_IOC_SETVERSION, EXT4_IOC_SETVERSION_OLD |
| Set the inode i_generation number stored for each inode. The '_OLD' |
| version of this ioctl is an alias for FS_IOC_SETVERSION. |
| |
| EXT4_IOC_GROUP_EXTEND |
| This ioctl has the same purpose as the resize mount option. It allows |
| to resize filesystem to the end of the last existing block group, |
| further resize has to be done with resize2fs, either online, or |
| offline. The argument points to the unsigned logn number representing |
| the filesystem new block count. |
| |
| EXT4_IOC_MOVE_EXT |
| Move the block extents from orig_fd (the one this ioctl is pointing to) |
| to the donor_fd (the one specified in move_extent structure passed as |
| an argument to this ioctl). Then, exchange inode metadata between |
| orig_fd and donor_fd. This is especially useful for online |
| defragmentation, because the allocator has the opportunity to allocate |
| moved blocks better, ideally into one contiguous extent. |
| |
| EXT4_IOC_GROUP_ADD |
| Add a new group descriptor to an existing or new group descriptor |
| block. The new group descriptor is described by ext4_new_group_input |
| structure, which is passed as an argument to this ioctl. This is |
| especially useful in conjunction with EXT4_IOC_GROUP_EXTEND, which |
| allows online resize of the filesystem to the end of the last existing |
| block group. Those two ioctls combined is used in userspace online |
| resize tool (e.g. resize2fs). |
| |
| EXT4_IOC_MIGRATE |
| This ioctl operates on the filesystem itself. It converts (migrates) |
| ext3 indirect block mapped inode to ext4 extent mapped inode by walking |
| through indirect block mapping of the original inode and converting |
| contiguous block ranges into ext4 extents of the temporary inode. Then, |
| inodes are swapped. This ioctl might help, when migrating from ext3 to |
| ext4 filesystem, however suggestion is to create fresh ext4 filesystem |
| and copy data from the backup. Note, that filesystem has to support |
| extents for this ioctl to work. |
| |
| EXT4_IOC_ALLOC_DA_BLKS |
| Force all of the delay allocated blocks to be allocated to preserve |
| application-expected ext3 behaviour. Note that this will also start |
| triggering a write of the data blocks, but this behaviour may change in |
| the future as it is not necessary and has been done this way only for |
| sake of simplicity. |
| |
| EXT4_IOC_RESIZE_FS |
| Resize the filesystem to a new size. The number of blocks of resized |
| filesystem is passed in via 64 bit integer argument. The kernel |
| allocates bitmaps and inode table, the userspace tool thus just passes |
| the new number of blocks. |
| |
| EXT4_IOC_SWAP_BOOT |
| Swap i_blocks and associated attributes (like i_blocks, i_size, |
| i_flags, ...) from the specified inode with inode EXT4_BOOT_LOADER_INO |
| (#5). This is typically used to store a boot loader in a secure part of |
| the filesystem, where it can't be changed by a normal user by accident. |
| The data blocks of the previous boot loader will be associated with the |
| given inode. |
| |
| References |
| ========== |
| |
| kernel source: <file:fs/ext4/> |
| <file:fs/jbd2/> |
| |
| programs: http://e2fsprogs.sourceforge.net/ |
| |
| useful links: https://fedoraproject.org/wiki/ext3-devel |
| http://www.bullopensource.org/ext4/ |
| http://ext4.wiki.kernel.org/index.php/Main_Page |
| https://fedoraproject.org/wiki/Features/Ext4 |
