Documentation/admin-guide/oops-tracing.rst - linux - Git at Google

 OOPS tracing
 ============

 .. note::

   ``ksymoops`` is useless on 2.6 or upper.  Please use the Oops in its original
   format (from ``dmesg``, etc).  Ignore any references in this or other docs to
   "decoding the Oops" or "running it through ksymoops".
   If you post an Oops from 2.6+ that has been run through ``ksymoops``,
   people will just tell you to repost it.

 Quick Summary
 -------------

 Find the Oops and send it to the maintainer of the kernel area that seems to be
 involved with the problem.  Don't worry too much about getting the wrong person.
 If you are unsure send it to the person responsible for the code relevant to
 what you were doing.  If it occurs repeatably try and describe how to recreate
 it.  That's worth even more than the oops.

 If you are totally stumped as to whom to send the report, send it to
 linux-kernel@vger.kernel.org. Thanks for your help in making Linux as
 stable as humanly possible.

 Where is the Oops?
 ----------------------

 Normally the Oops text is read from the kernel buffers by klogd and
 handed to ``syslogd`` which writes it to a syslog file, typically
 ``/var/log/messages`` (depends on ``/etc/syslog.conf``).  Sometimes ``klogd``
 dies, in which case you can run ``dmesg > file`` to read the data from the
 kernel buffers and save it.  Or you can ``cat /proc/kmsg > file``, however you
 have to break in to stop the transfer, ``kmsg`` is a "never ending file".
 If the machine has crashed so badly that you cannot enter commands or
 the disk is not available then you have three options :

 (1) Hand copy the text from the screen and type it in after the machine
     has restarted.  Messy but it is the only option if you have not
     planned for a crash. Alternatively, you can take a picture of
     the screen with a digital camera - not nice, but better than
     nothing.  If the messages scroll off the top of the console, you
     may find that booting with a higher resolution (eg, ``vga=791``)
     will allow you to read more of the text. (Caveat: This needs ``vesafb``,
     so won't help for 'early' oopses)

 (2) Boot with a serial console (see
     :ref:`Documentation/serial-console.txt <serial_console>`),
     run a null modem to a second machine and capture the output there
     using your favourite communication program.  Minicom works well.

 (3) Use Kdump (see Documentation/kdump/kdump.txt),
     extract the kernel ring buffer from old memory with using dmesg
     gdbmacro in Documentation/kdump/gdbmacros.txt.


 Full Information
 ----------------

 .. note::

   the message from Linus below applies to 2.4 kernel.  I have preserved it
   for historical reasons, and because some of the information in it still
   applies.  Especially, please ignore any references to ksymoops.

   ::

 	From: Linus Torvalds <torvalds@osdl.org>

 	How to track down an Oops.. [originally a mail to linux-kernel]

 	The main trick is having 5 years of experience with those pesky oops
 	messages ;-)

 Actually, there are things you can do that make this easier. I have two
 separate approaches::

 	gdb /usr/src/linux/vmlinux
 	gdb> disassemble <offending_function>

 That's the easy way to find the problem, at least if the bug-report is
 well made (like this one was - run through ``ksymoops`` to get the
 information of which function and the offset in the function that it
 happened in).

 Oh, it helps if the report happens on a kernel that is compiled with the
 same compiler and similar setups.

 The other thing to do is disassemble the "Code:" part of the bug report:
 ksymoops will do this too with the correct tools, but if you don't have
 the tools you can just do a silly program::

 	char str[] = "\xXX\xXX\xXX...";
 	main(){}

 and compile it with ``gcc -g`` and then do ``disassemble str`` (where the ``XX``
 stuff are the values reported by the Oops - you can just cut-and-paste
 and do a replace of spaces to ``\x`` - that's what I do, as I'm too lazy
 to write a program to automate this all).

 Alternatively, you can use the shell script in ``scripts/decodecode``.
 Its usage is::

 	decodecode < oops.txt

 The hex bytes that follow "Code:" may (in some architectures) have a series
 of bytes that precede the current instruction pointer as well as bytes at and
 following the current instruction pointer.  In some cases, one instruction
 byte or word is surrounded by ``<>`` or ``()``, as in ``<86>`` or ``(f00d)``.
 These ``<>`` or ``()`` markings indicate the current instruction pointer.

 Example from i386, split into multiple lines for readability::

 	Code: f9 0f 8d f9 00 00 00 8d 42 0c e8 dd 26 11 c7 a1 60 ea 2b f9 8b 50 08 a1
 	64 ea 2b f9 8d 34 82 8b 1e 85 db 74 6d 8b 15 60 ea 2b f9 <8b> 43 04 39 42 54
 	7e 04 40 89 42 54 8b 43 04 3b 05 00 f6 52 c0

 Finally, if you want to see where the code comes from, you can do::

 	cd /usr/src/linux
 	make fs/buffer.s 	# or whatever file the bug happened in

 and then you get a better idea of what happens than with the gdb
 disassembly.

 Now, the trick is just then to combine all the data you have: the C
 sources (and general knowledge of what it **should** do), the assembly
 listing and the code disassembly (and additionally the register dump you
 also get from the "oops" message - that can be useful to see **what** the
 corrupted pointers were, and when you have the assembler listing you can
 also match the other registers to whatever C expressions they were used
 for).

 Essentially, you just look at what doesn't match (in this case it was the
 "Code" disassembly that didn't match with what the compiler generated).
 Then you need to find out **why** they don't match. Often it's simple - you
 see that the code uses a NULL pointer and then you look at the code and
 wonder how the NULL pointer got there, and if it's a valid thing to do
 you just check against it..

 Now, if somebody gets the idea that this is time-consuming and requires
 some small amount of concentration, you're right. Which is why I will
 mostly just ignore any panic reports that don't have the symbol table
 info etc looked up: it simply gets too hard to look it up (I have some
 programs to search for specific patterns in the kernel code segment, and
 sometimes I have been able to look up those kinds of panics too, but
 that really requires pretty good knowledge of the kernel just to be able
 to pick out the right sequences etc..)

 **Sometimes** it happens that I just see the disassembled code sequence
 from the panic, and I know immediately where it's coming from. That's when
 I get worried that I've been doing this for too long ;-)

 		Linus


 ---------------------------------------------------------------------------

 Notes on Oops tracing with ``klogd``
 ------------------------------------

 In order to help Linus and the other kernel developers there has been
 substantial support incorporated into ``klogd`` for processing protection
 faults.  In order to have full support for address resolution at least
 version 1.3-pl3 of the ``sysklogd`` package should be used.

 When a protection fault occurs the ``klogd`` daemon automatically
 translates important addresses in the kernel log messages to their
 symbolic equivalents.  This translated kernel message is then
 forwarded through whatever reporting mechanism ``klogd`` is using.  The
 protection fault message can be simply cut out of the message files
 and forwarded to the kernel developers.

 Two types of address resolution are performed by ``klogd``.  The first is
 static translation and the second is dynamic translation.  Static
 translation uses the System.map file in much the same manner that
 ksymoops does.  In order to do static translation the ``klogd`` daemon
 must be able to find a system map file at daemon initialization time.
 See the klogd man page for information on how ``klogd`` searches for map
 files.

 Dynamic address translation is important when kernel loadable modules
 are being used.  Since memory for kernel modules is allocated from the
 kernel's dynamic memory pools there are no fixed locations for either
 the start of the module or for functions and symbols in the module.

 The kernel supports system calls which allow a program to determine
 which modules are loaded and their location in memory.  Using these
 system calls the klogd daemon builds a symbol table which can be used
 to debug a protection fault which occurs in a loadable kernel module.

 At the very minimum klogd will provide the name of the module which
 generated the protection fault.  There may be additional symbolic
 information available if the developer of the loadable module chose to
 export symbol information from the module.

 Since the kernel module environment can be dynamic there must be a
 mechanism for notifying the ``klogd`` daemon when a change in module
 environment occurs.  There are command line options available which
 allow klogd to signal the currently executing daemon that symbol
 information should be refreshed.  See the ``klogd`` manual page for more
 information.

 A patch is included with the sysklogd distribution which modifies the
 ``modules-2.0.0`` package to automatically signal klogd whenever a module
 is loaded or unloaded.  Applying this patch provides essentially
 seamless support for debugging protection faults which occur with
 kernel loadable modules.

 The following is an example of a protection fault in a loadable module
 processed by ``klogd``::

 	Aug 29 09:51:01 blizard kernel: Unable to handle kernel paging request at virtual address f15e97cc
 	Aug 29 09:51:01 blizard kernel: current->tss.cr3 = 0062d000, %cr3 = 0062d000
 	Aug 29 09:51:01 blizard kernel: *pde = 00000000
 	Aug 29 09:51:01 blizard kernel: Oops: 0002
 	Aug 29 09:51:01 blizard kernel: CPU:    0
 	Aug 29 09:51:01 blizard kernel: EIP:    0010:[oops:_oops+16/3868]
 	Aug 29 09:51:01 blizard kernel: EFLAGS: 00010212
 	Aug 29 09:51:01 blizard kernel: eax: 315e97cc   ebx: 003a6f80   ecx: 001be77b   edx: 00237c0c
 	Aug 29 09:51:01 blizard kernel: esi: 00000000   edi: bffffdb3   ebp: 00589f90   esp: 00589f8c
 	Aug 29 09:51:01 blizard kernel: ds: 0018   es: 0018   fs: 002b   gs: 002b   ss: 0018
 	Aug 29 09:51:01 blizard kernel: Process oops_test (pid: 3374, process nr: 21, stackpage=00589000)
 	Aug 29 09:51:01 blizard kernel: Stack: 315e97cc 00589f98 0100b0b4 bffffed4 0012e38e 00240c64 003a6f80 00000001
 	Aug 29 09:51:01 blizard kernel:        00000000 00237810 bfffff00 0010a7fa 00000003 00000001 00000000 bfffff00
 	Aug 29 09:51:01 blizard kernel:        bffffdb3 bffffed4 ffffffda 0000002b 0007002b 0000002b 0000002b 00000036
 	Aug 29 09:51:01 blizard kernel: Call Trace: [oops:_oops_ioctl+48/80] [_sys_ioctl+254/272] [_system_call+82/128]
 	Aug 29 09:51:01 blizard kernel: Code: c7 00 05 00 00 00 eb 08 90 90 90 90 90 90 90 90 89 ec 5d c3

 ---------------------------------------------------------------------------

 ::

   Dr. G.W. Wettstein           Oncology Research Div. Computing Facility
   Roger Maris Cancer Center    INTERNET: greg@wind.rmcc.com
   820 4th St. N.
   Fargo, ND  58122
   Phone: 701-234-7556


 ---------------------------------------------------------------------------

 Tainted kernels
 ---------------

 Some oops reports contain the string **'Tainted: '** after the program
 counter. This indicates that the kernel has been tainted by some
 mechanism.  The string is followed by a series of position-sensitive
 characters, each representing a particular tainted value.

   1) 'G' if all modules loaded have a GPL or compatible license, 'P' if
      any proprietary module has been loaded.  Modules without a
      MODULE_LICENSE or with a MODULE_LICENSE that is not recognised by
      insmod as GPL compatible are assumed to be proprietary.

   2) ``F`` if any module was force loaded by ``insmod -f``, ``' '`` if all
      modules were loaded normally.

   3) ``S`` if the oops occurred on an SMP kernel running on hardware that
      hasn't been certified as safe to run multiprocessor.
      Currently this occurs only on various Athlons that are not
      SMP capable.

   4) ``R`` if a module was force unloaded by ``rmmod -f``, ``' '`` if all
      modules were unloaded normally.

   5) ``M`` if any processor has reported a Machine Check Exception,
      ``' '`` if no Machine Check Exceptions have occurred.

   6) ``B`` if a page-release function has found a bad page reference or
      some unexpected page flags.

   7) ``U`` if a user or user application specifically requested that the
      Tainted flag be set, ``' '`` otherwise.

   8) ``D`` if the kernel has died recently, i.e. there was an OOPS or BUG.

   9) ``A`` if the ACPI table has been overridden.

  10) ``W`` if a warning has previously been issued by the kernel.
      (Though some warnings may set more specific taint flags.)

  11) ``C`` if a staging driver has been loaded.

  12) ``I`` if the kernel is working around a severe bug in the platform
      firmware (BIOS or similar).

  13) ``O`` if an externally-built ("out-of-tree") module has been loaded.

  14) ``E`` if an unsigned module has been loaded in a kernel supporting
      module signature.

  15) ``L`` if a soft lockup has previously occurred on the system.

  16) ``K`` if the kernel has been live patched.

 The primary reason for the **'Tainted: '** string is to tell kernel
 debuggers if this is a clean kernel or if anything unusual has
 occurred.  Tainting is permanent: even if an offending module is
 unloaded, the tainted value remains to indicate that the kernel is not
 trustworthy.
	OOPS tracing
	============

	.. note::

	``ksymoops`` is useless on 2.6 or upper. Please use the Oops in its original
	format (from ``dmesg``, etc). Ignore any references in this or other docs to
	"decoding the Oops" or "running it through ksymoops".
	If you post an Oops from 2.6+ that has been run through ``ksymoops``,
	people will just tell you to repost it.

	Quick Summary
	-------------

	Find the Oops and send it to the maintainer of the kernel area that seems to be
	involved with the problem. Don't worry too much about getting the wrong person.
	If you are unsure send it to the person responsible for the code relevant to
	what you were doing. If it occurs repeatably try and describe how to recreate
	it. That's worth even more than the oops.

	If you are totally stumped as to whom to send the report, send it to
	linux-kernel@vger.kernel.org. Thanks for your help in making Linux as
	stable as humanly possible.

	Where is the Oops?
	----------------------

	Normally the Oops text is read from the kernel buffers by klogd and
	handed to ``syslogd`` which writes it to a syslog file, typically
	``/var/log/messages`` (depends on ``/etc/syslog.conf``). Sometimes ``klogd``
	dies, in which case you can run ``dmesg > file`` to read the data from the
	kernel buffers and save it. Or you can ``cat /proc/kmsg > file``, however you
	have to break in to stop the transfer, ``kmsg`` is a "never ending file".
	If the machine has crashed so badly that you cannot enter commands or
	the disk is not available then you have three options :

	(1) Hand copy the text from the screen and type it in after the machine
	has restarted. Messy but it is the only option if you have not
	planned for a crash. Alternatively, you can take a picture of
	the screen with a digital camera - not nice, but better than
	nothing. If the messages scroll off the top of the console, you
	may find that booting with a higher resolution (eg, ``vga=791``)
	will allow you to read more of the text. (Caveat: This needs ``vesafb``,
	so won't help for 'early' oopses)

	(2) Boot with a serial console (see
	:ref:`Documentation/serial-console.txt <serial_console>`),
	run a null modem to a second machine and capture the output there
	using your favourite communication program. Minicom works well.

	(3) Use Kdump (see Documentation/kdump/kdump.txt),
	extract the kernel ring buffer from old memory with using dmesg
	gdbmacro in Documentation/kdump/gdbmacros.txt.


	Full Information
	----------------

	.. note::

	the message from Linus below applies to 2.4 kernel. I have preserved it
	for historical reasons, and because some of the information in it still
	applies. Especially, please ignore any references to ksymoops.

	::

	From: Linus Torvalds <torvalds@osdl.org>

	How to track down an Oops.. [originally a mail to linux-kernel]

	The main trick is having 5 years of experience with those pesky oops
	messages ;-)

	Actually, there are things you can do that make this easier. I have two
	separate approaches::

	gdb /usr/src/linux/vmlinux
	gdb> disassemble <offending_function>

	That's the easy way to find the problem, at least if the bug-report is
	well made (like this one was - run through ``ksymoops`` to get the
	information of which function and the offset in the function that it
	happened in).

	Oh, it helps if the report happens on a kernel that is compiled with the
	same compiler and similar setups.

	The other thing to do is disassemble the "Code:" part of the bug report:
	ksymoops will do this too with the correct tools, but if you don't have
	the tools you can just do a silly program::

	char str[] = "\xXX\xXX\xXX...";
	main(){}

	and compile it with ``gcc -g`` and then do ``disassemble str`` (where the ``XX``
	stuff are the values reported by the Oops - you can just cut-and-paste
	and do a replace of spaces to ``\x`` - that's what I do, as I'm too lazy
	to write a program to automate this all).

	Alternatively, you can use the shell script in ``scripts/decodecode``.
	Its usage is::

	decodecode < oops.txt

	The hex bytes that follow "Code:" may (in some architectures) have a series
	of bytes that precede the current instruction pointer as well as bytes at and
	following the current instruction pointer. In some cases, one instruction
	byte or word is surrounded by ``<>`` or ``()``, as in ``<86>`` or ``(f00d)``.
	These ``<>`` or ``()`` markings indicate the current instruction pointer.

	Example from i386, split into multiple lines for readability::

	Code: f9 0f 8d f9 00 00 00 8d 42 0c e8 dd 26 11 c7 a1 60 ea 2b f9 8b 50 08 a1
	64 ea 2b f9 8d 34 82 8b 1e 85 db 74 6d 8b 15 60 ea 2b f9 <8b> 43 04 39 42 54
	7e 04 40 89 42 54 8b 43 04 3b 05 00 f6 52 c0

	Finally, if you want to see where the code comes from, you can do::

	cd /usr/src/linux
	make fs/buffer.s # or whatever file the bug happened in

	and then you get a better idea of what happens than with the gdb
	disassembly.

	Now, the trick is just then to combine all the data you have: the C
	sources (and general knowledge of what it should do), the assembly
	listing and the code disassembly (and additionally the register dump you
	also get from the "oops" message - that can be useful to see what the
	corrupted pointers were, and when you have the assembler listing you can
	also match the other registers to whatever C expressions they were used
	for).

	Essentially, you just look at what doesn't match (in this case it was the
	"Code" disassembly that didn't match with what the compiler generated).
	Then you need to find out why they don't match. Often it's simple - you
	see that the code uses a NULL pointer and then you look at the code and
	wonder how the NULL pointer got there, and if it's a valid thing to do
	you just check against it..

	Now, if somebody gets the idea that this is time-consuming and requires
	some small amount of concentration, you're right. Which is why I will
	mostly just ignore any panic reports that don't have the symbol table
	info etc looked up: it simply gets too hard to look it up (I have some
	programs to search for specific patterns in the kernel code segment, and
	sometimes I have been able to look up those kinds of panics too, but
	that really requires pretty good knowledge of the kernel just to be able
	to pick out the right sequences etc..)

	Sometimes it happens that I just see the disassembled code sequence
	from the panic, and I know immediately where it's coming from. That's when
	I get worried that I've been doing this for too long ;-)

	Linus


	---------------------------------------------------------------------------

	Notes on Oops tracing with ``klogd``
	------------------------------------

	In order to help Linus and the other kernel developers there has been
	substantial support incorporated into ``klogd`` for processing protection
	faults. In order to have full support for address resolution at least
	version 1.3-pl3 of the ``sysklogd`` package should be used.

	When a protection fault occurs the ``klogd`` daemon automatically
	translates important addresses in the kernel log messages to their
	symbolic equivalents. This translated kernel message is then
	forwarded through whatever reporting mechanism ``klogd`` is using. The
	protection fault message can be simply cut out of the message files
	and forwarded to the kernel developers.

	Two types of address resolution are performed by ``klogd``. The first is
	static translation and the second is dynamic translation. Static
	translation uses the System.map file in much the same manner that
	ksymoops does. In order to do static translation the ``klogd`` daemon
	must be able to find a system map file at daemon initialization time.
	See the klogd man page for information on how ``klogd`` searches for map
	files.

	Dynamic address translation is important when kernel loadable modules
	are being used. Since memory for kernel modules is allocated from the
	kernel's dynamic memory pools there are no fixed locations for either
	the start of the module or for functions and symbols in the module.

	The kernel supports system calls which allow a program to determine
	which modules are loaded and their location in memory. Using these
	system calls the klogd daemon builds a symbol table which can be used
	to debug a protection fault which occurs in a loadable kernel module.

	At the very minimum klogd will provide the name of the module which
	generated the protection fault. There may be additional symbolic
	information available if the developer of the loadable module chose to
	export symbol information from the module.

	Since the kernel module environment can be dynamic there must be a
	mechanism for notifying the ``klogd`` daemon when a change in module
	environment occurs. There are command line options available which
	allow klogd to signal the currently executing daemon that symbol
	information should be refreshed. See the ``klogd`` manual page for more
	information.

	A patch is included with the sysklogd distribution which modifies the
	``modules-2.0.0`` package to automatically signal klogd whenever a module
	is loaded or unloaded. Applying this patch provides essentially
	seamless support for debugging protection faults which occur with
	kernel loadable modules.

	The following is an example of a protection fault in a loadable module
	processed by ``klogd``::

	Aug 29 09:51:01 blizard kernel: Unable to handle kernel paging request at virtual address f15e97cc
	Aug 29 09:51:01 blizard kernel: current->tss.cr3 = 0062d000, %cr3 = 0062d000
	Aug 29 09:51:01 blizard kernel: *pde = 00000000
	Aug 29 09:51:01 blizard kernel: Oops: 0002
	Aug 29 09:51:01 blizard kernel: CPU: 0
	Aug 29 09:51:01 blizard kernel: EIP: 0010:[oops:_oops+16/3868]
	Aug 29 09:51:01 blizard kernel: EFLAGS: 00010212
	Aug 29 09:51:01 blizard kernel: eax: 315e97cc ebx: 003a6f80 ecx: 001be77b edx: 00237c0c
	Aug 29 09:51:01 blizard kernel: esi: 00000000 edi: bffffdb3 ebp: 00589f90 esp: 00589f8c
	Aug 29 09:51:01 blizard kernel: ds: 0018 es: 0018 fs: 002b gs: 002b ss: 0018
	Aug 29 09:51:01 blizard kernel: Process oops_test (pid: 3374, process nr: 21, stackpage=00589000)
	Aug 29 09:51:01 blizard kernel: Stack: 315e97cc 00589f98 0100b0b4 bffffed4 0012e38e 00240c64 003a6f80 00000001
	Aug 29 09:51:01 blizard kernel: 00000000 00237810 bfffff00 0010a7fa 00000003 00000001 00000000 bfffff00
	Aug 29 09:51:01 blizard kernel: bffffdb3 bffffed4 ffffffda 0000002b 0007002b 0000002b 0000002b 00000036
	Aug 29 09:51:01 blizard kernel: Call Trace: [oops:_oops_ioctl+48/80] [_sys_ioctl+254/272] [_system_call+82/128]
	Aug 29 09:51:01 blizard kernel: Code: c7 00 05 00 00 00 eb 08 90 90 90 90 90 90 90 90 89 ec 5d c3

	---------------------------------------------------------------------------

	::

	Dr. G.W. Wettstein Oncology Research Div. Computing Facility
	Roger Maris Cancer Center INTERNET: greg@wind.rmcc.com
	820 4th St. N.
	Fargo, ND 58122
	Phone: 701-234-7556


	---------------------------------------------------------------------------

	Tainted kernels
	---------------

	Some oops reports contain the string 'Tainted: ' after the program
	counter. This indicates that the kernel has been tainted by some
	mechanism. The string is followed by a series of position-sensitive
	characters, each representing a particular tainted value.

	1) 'G' if all modules loaded have a GPL or compatible license, 'P' if
	any proprietary module has been loaded. Modules without a
	MODULE_LICENSE or with a MODULE_LICENSE that is not recognised by
	insmod as GPL compatible are assumed to be proprietary.

	2) ``F`` if any module was force loaded by ``insmod -f``, ``' '`` if all
	modules were loaded normally.

	3) ``S`` if the oops occurred on an SMP kernel running on hardware that
	hasn't been certified as safe to run multiprocessor.
	Currently this occurs only on various Athlons that are not
	SMP capable.

	4) ``R`` if a module was force unloaded by ``rmmod -f``, ``' '`` if all
	modules were unloaded normally.

	5) ``M`` if any processor has reported a Machine Check Exception,
	``' '`` if no Machine Check Exceptions have occurred.

	6) ``B`` if a page-release function has found a bad page reference or
	some unexpected page flags.

	7) ``U`` if a user or user application specifically requested that the
	Tainted flag be set, ``' '`` otherwise.

	8) ``D`` if the kernel has died recently, i.e. there was an OOPS or BUG.

	9) ``A`` if the ACPI table has been overridden.

	10) ``W`` if a warning has previously been issued by the kernel.
	(Though some warnings may set more specific taint flags.)

	11) ``C`` if a staging driver has been loaded.

	12) ``I`` if the kernel is working around a severe bug in the platform
	firmware (BIOS or similar).

	13) ``O`` if an externally-built ("out-of-tree") module has been loaded.

	14) ``E`` if an unsigned module has been loaded in a kernel supporting
	module signature.

	15) ``L`` if a soft lockup has previously occurred on the system.

	16) ``K`` if the kernel has been live patched.

	The primary reason for the 'Tainted: ' string is to tell kernel
	debuggers if this is a clean kernel or if anything unusual has
	occurred. Tainting is permanent: even if an offending module is
	unloaded, the tainted value remains to indicate that the kernel is not
	trustworthy.